Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
“Live
as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever.”
Education
is a reasonably good indication of development and the rights of every
individual to education is one of the first provisions of the Universal
Declaration on Human Rights. But education often neglected in societies
struggling to meet the needs of their people. Recently education has received
greater priority as planners and policy makers finally recognized it as a key
factor in determining the pace of development. Women in India contributions are
vital for the nation’s progress. But the magnitude of illiteracy among women is
very high. Only 65.46 per cent
of women are literates as per 2011 census. Even though the education system
expanded very rapidly, the gender gap in literacy remains conspicuous by its
presence. The Constitution of India confers on women, equal rights and
opportunities in all fields. The Government of India has endorsed the same
through its Plans, Policies and able to take full advantage of their rights and
opportunities in practice for various reasons.
Chapter II
HISTORY OF WOMEN
EDUCATION IN INDIA
Women comprise approximately
half of the population in the world. But hegemonic masculine ideology made them
bear a lot as they were denied equivalent opportunities in different parts of
the world. The augment of feminist ideas has, however, led to the marvelous
development of women’s condition in the society throughout the world in recent
times. Access to education has been one of the most urgent and important
demands of these women’s rights movements. Women education in India has also
been a chief preoccupation of both the government and social or civil society
as educated women can play a very important role in the development of the
country. In the present era, the Indian society has established a number of
institutions for the educational development of moment and girls.[1] These educational
institutions aim for immense help and are concerned with the development of
women. In the modern society, women in India have all fields. All this is
possible just because of education and the profound impact it has had on women.
(A) Women’s Education in Ancient India
In ancient India, women and
girls received less education than men. This was due to the set social norms.
Interestingly, in the Vedic period women had access to education, but gradually
they had lost this right. Women education in ancient India prevailed during the
early Vedic period. In addition to that Indian scriptures Rig Veda and
Upanishads mention about several women sages and seers. Women enjoyed
equivalent position and rights in the early Vedic era. However, after 500B.C,
the position of women started to decline. The Islamic invasion played a vital
role in restricting freedom and rights of the women. A radical change attended
and there was a terrific constraint for women education in India.
(B) Women’s Education in
Medieval India
Women education in medieval
India further weakened and with the introduction of Purdah System. Different
customs and convention of diverse religions like Hinduism, Islam, and
Christianity further deteriorated and depreciated the state of women in the
country. A range of socio religious movements contributed to the development of
women literacy in the country. Many leaders took several initiatives to make
education available to the women of India. The ordered form of women education
in India was incorporated in the early centuries of the Christian era[2].
(C) Women’s Education in
Modern India
The idea of women
empowerment was introduced at the International Women Conference at Nairobi in
1985. Education is milestone of women empowerment because it enables them to
responds to the challenges, to confront their traditional role and change their
life. So that we can’t ignore the significance of education in reference to
women empowerment India is poised to becoming superpower, a developed country
by 2020. This can become reality only when the women of this nation became of
this nation became empowerment. India presently account for the largest number
of illiterates in the world. Literacy rate in India have risen stridently from
18.3% in 1951 to 64 in 2001 in which enrolment of women in education have also
risen sharply 7% to 54.16%[3].
Despite the significance of
women education unfortunately only 39% of women are literate among 64% of the
man. Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development
policies, plan and programmes that have focus at women’s progression in
different spheres. From the fifth five year plan (1974-78) onwards has been a
marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development. In
recent years, the empowerment of women has been accepted as the vital concern
in determining the status of women in the Indian society. The National
commission of women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the
rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the
Constitution have provide for reservation of seats in the local bodies of
Panchayat and Municipalities for women, laying a sturdy basis for their
contribution in decision making at the local level.
Chapter III
GIRLS EDUCATION:
CONSTRAINTS AND BARRIERS
In
spite of certain outstanding examples of individual achievement of Indian woman
and a definite improvement in their general condition over the last one hundred
years, it remains true that our woman still constitute a large body of under - privileged citizens.
Women of course do not form a homogenous group in class or caste terms.
Nevertheless, they face distinctive problems that call for special attention.
The Backward Classes Commission set up by the Government of India in 1953 classified
women of India as a backward group requiring special attention[4].
(A) Educational
problems of girls in India
The
ministry of Education clubs girls with Scheduled Castes and Tribes as the three
most backward groups in education. Ram Manohar Lohia considered the lot of
women to be similar to that of Harijans. Realizing the enormity of the problems
of Indian women the Government of India has appointed a separate committee on
the Status of Women in India, The social backwardness of Indian women points to
the great hiatus between their legal status which is more or less equal to that
of men, and their actual position in society, which is still far from the ideal
which exists on paper. The educational, economic, political and social
backwardness of women makes them the largest group hindering the process of
rapid social change.
It
is inevitable that when this ‘backward’ group has the major responsibility of
bringing up future generations the advancement of society cannot be rapid or
take any significant form of development. In the report of the committee
appointed by the National Council for Women’s Education it was emphatically
stated that what was needed to convert the equality of women from de jure to be
facto status was widespread education for girls and women and a re-education of
men and women to accept new and scientific attitudes towards each other and to
themselves. A changing society and a developing economy cannot make any headway
if education, which is one of the important agents affecting the norms of
morality and culture, remains in the hand of traditionalists who subscribe to a
fragmented view of the country’s and the world’s heritage. The differences
between the positions of men and women in society will not lessen; leave aside
disappear, as long as there are differences between the education of men and
women. Inadequate education or no education is the most important factor
contributing to the backwardness of our masses, especially our womenfolk. It is
the low literacy among women which brings national literacy figure so low.
This
gap which exists between the literacy rates of the two sexes also exists
between the enrolment of girls and boys at all levels of education. Right from
the primary school to the university, we find that the number of girl students
is considerable lower than the number of boy students. According to Article 45
of the Constitution, universal compulsory and free education until the age of
14 was to be achieved by the year 1960. Looking at the present condition of
primary education in villages, it seems doubtful that 100 per cent enrolment of
girls can be achieved by the end of this century. There is no doubt that we
have made great headway in the education of women in the last century. It is
unfortunately true of our society that children are sent to school not
according to their intelligence or aptitude but according to their sex. Such
attitudes need to be changed without further delay if we want to achieve 100
per cent enrolment of the primary school-going children. Although the disparity
between the enrolment of girls and boys has been lessening in the urban areas,
the gap between their enrolments is still very wide specially in rural areas.
The reasons for this are both economic and social.
The
economic structure of rural areas is such that children, especially girls, are
required to help in household work and perform their chores. Young girls have
to look after their younger brothers and sisters, have to get water from the
well, have to carry food to the father in the field, etc. Since there is so
much to be done at home, they cannot be spared for the luxury of attending a
school. The resources of the poor farmer are so limited that he does not have
anything to spare for the education of his children. If there are resources
available it the boy who is sent to school first. Parents also do not see the
value of educating their children specially daughters who would get married
after all and be only housewives. Since they cannot see any direct relationship
between education and economic betterment, they have very little motivation to
send their children to school.
It
is still not being realized that there is definite connection between
education, good motherhood and efficient house management. The management of
millions of household and the upbringing of millions of children in thus is the
hands of illiterate women. It is here that a change is required if our
democratic and socialistic intensions are not to remain a mere pretence. People
can be motivated to have their children educated only if educational system is
directly linked with economic and social development. As long as our education
remains oblivious of the felt needs of people to solve their immediate problems
and on the contrary, actually alienates them from their natural, social and
cultural surroundings, they will rightly resist sending their children to
school. It is the area of primary education, especially in rural areas, which
should be given maximum attention. Primary education for both girls and boys is
what we should be concerned about while planning our policies and allocation
funds. It is this sector of our education structure that gets neglected in
favor of all sorts of institutes of ‘higher learning’ and ‘research’ of a kind
that are neither relevant nor pertinent to our pressing problems. The role of
women outside home is becoming an important and even essential feature of our
present day reality.
(B) Reason behind Educational problems
The education of girls is
lagging behind than boys at all levels of school education. Their enrolment
rate is low and dropout rate is higher than boys at all levels of education.
Many girls leave schools even without completing elementary education. There
are many sociocultural, economic and educational barriers, which hinder their
participation in education. Some of these barriers are discussed below:
Poverty
The rate of illiteracy is
closely linked to poverty. Due to the poverty or low family income, if parents
are not in a position to send both boys and girls to school, they usually send
boys to schools and retain girls at home to do house-hold work. If education is
free-up to primary stage, there is possibility to increase the participation of
girls and it will not put any kind of financial burden on the parents all the same.
Number of children
In poor families generally,
there are many children. According to the priority list of parents, girls’
education is not compulsory and boys get a high chance of receiving education.
Child Marriage
Many girls in many states of
India still get married at an early age, which affect their education to a
great extent. (E.g. girls in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa,
etc.)
Customs and cultural practices
There are many customs and
cultural practices for girl in higher education. For examples many parents of a
certain community do not send their daughters to schools when they attain
puberty. Purdan system is also affecting education of girls.
Female teachers in schools
Girls are more interested in
going to schools if female teachers are there in the schools. They are more
comfortable and more vocal with female, thus actively focusing and
participating in the learning processes. In rural areas also, parents are
interested in sending their girl children to school if female teachers are
present. If qualified female teachers are teaching in the school they feel more
secured towards their girl children. They may be hesitating to send their girl children
in male environment based school. The National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986)
recommended the need for having a female teacher in every primary school. It is
to promote girls towards education by raising the sense of security and
providing them a role model. If female teacher is not present in school, girls
may not go to school, especially at upper primary level.
Transport facility
One of the barriers for girl
education may be the location of schools which are far away from their homes,
particularly in rural areas. Adequate transport system is needed for girl to
attend the schools. It will be more convenient for them if school buses take
responsibility for pick and drop facility for the girl children. In rural
areas, other modes may be tried out.
Molestation/abuse in school
Most of the parents feel unsecured
towards their girl children as instances of abduction, rape, sexual harassment
and molestation of girl damperns the enthusiasm of parents and girl students in
pursuing their education beyond a certain age.
Inappropriate school timing
In rural areas morning time
is not suitable for girl education, as they are engaged in domestic work at
home or in farms and field during these hours. The enrolment and retention rate
may be high when educational facilities are made available during periods
suitable to them when they are free from domestic chores.
Toilet facility
This may be one of the
reasons of lower participation rates of girls in education especially at upper
primary level. The separate toilet facilities for girls must be created in the
school premises. This must also cover the security aspect for girl. At the same
time, toilet facility is needed for female teachers also.
Lack of girls’ schools
Many parents do not want to
send their daughters to coeducational schools especially at upper primary
level. There is an urgent need to open separate schools for girls especially at
upper primary level as a powerful strategy for bringing to a conclusive girls’
school environment. There must be strong provision of good quality schools for
girls if demand is there.
Lack of hostel facilities
One of the obstacles in
girls’ education is that schools are away from their homes, they cannot avail
themselves of this facility due to lack of hostel arrangement. The girls
belonging to SC/ST category would continue their education particularly in
rural areas, if they are provided with free or inexpensive residential
facilities nearer to the school.
Gender discrimination
A number of practices within
educational system reinforce gender-differentiated practices and promote
inequality, gender bias and gender stereotyping. You might have observed some
others barriers, which are specific to your (Community, village and district
etc.
Chapter IV
WOMEN’S EDUCATION
INITIATIVES
(A) International
Initiatives
India
has ratified various International Conventions and Human Rights instruments
committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the ratification
of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW, 1979) in 1993. CEDAW was adopted by United Nations General Assembly
(UNGA) in December 1979, and there are more than 150 states parties to the
convention[9].
(i) CEDAW-1979:
This
Convention calls for equal rights for women regardless their married status in
all fields – political, economic, social, cultural and civil. It appeals for a
national legislature to ban discrimination; recommends temporary special
measures to spread equality between men and women and action to modify social
and cultural pattern that perpetuates discrimination (CEDAW, 1979).
(ii) UNICEF, Report in
1992 Conference on Education for All Girls:
Programs
of Women’s Studies have attempted to dismantle stereotypes and build up women’s
esteem. Special studies reveal both the extent to which women have been
deprived and oppressed and elements in the tradition of all civilization that
promote positive images to and ease the conflicts experienced by many women in
pursuit of their advancement and new roles in society.
The
UAC’S program for promoting Women’s Studies envisages assistance to
Universities for setting up centers and cells for Women’s Studies. The centers
and cells are required to undertake research, develop curricula and organize
training and extension work in the areas of gender equality, economic, self
reliance of women, girl’s education, population issues of human rights and
social exploration[10]
(iii) Beijing Conference:
Platform for Action 1995:
The
Mexico Plan of Action (1975), the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies (1985),
the Beijing Declaration as well as the Platform of Action (1995) and the outcome
Document adopted by the UNGA(United Nations General Assembly) session on
“Gender Equality and Development and Peace for the 21st century”,
titled Further actions and initiatives to implement the Beijing Declaration and
the Platform of action have been unreservedly endorsed by India for appropriate
follow up.
Beijing
Conference adopted a Declaration and Platform of Action on the concluding day.
The Platform of Action is addressing the unequal access to and inadequate
educational opportunities to women suggested the following strategies to be
adopted by the Governments.
·
Strategic objective 1:
Ensure equal access to education
·
Strategic objective 2:
Eradicate illiteracy among women
·
Strategic objective 3:
Improve women’s access to vocational training, science and technology and
continuing education.
·
Strategic objective 4:
Develop non-discriminate education and training
·
Strategic objective 5:
Promote lifelong education and training for girls and women
(iv) Education for All
The
World Conference on Education for All, sponsored by UNESCO, UNICEF, the World
Bank and the UNDP, held in 1990 took stock of the persistence and dimensions of
the gender gap. Its final Declaration stated that drawing attention to poor
environments experienced by hundreds of millions of girls, it calls for
ensuring that all learners receive the nutrition, health care and general
physical and emotional support they need[11].
(B) National Initiatives
Though India’s present
constitutional and policy framework on education has been built on premises
that acknowledge and contest gender discrimination, the right to education
nevertheless filters through mind-boggling administrative machinery that
perpetuates exclusion. This section briefly records a few advances, paradoxes and
gross violations in a country that is a part of the international human rights
regime and has for the past decades followed a neoliberal economic regime (more
recently on education).
Constitutional safeguards
that determine women’s right to education also guarantee women equality before
law (Article 14), the right to life and liberty (Article 21) and forbid discrimination
(Article 15). The state is further obliged to make special provisions for women
and children and for children within the age of 6 to 14. Education is now a
fundamental right through a constitutional amendment (93rd Constitutional
Amendment 2001). International assertions have been backed by national policies
on education, which have linked women’s right to education with empowerment. Simultaneously,
population policies in the country, which till the mid-1970s targeted women for
sterilization programs and advanced women’s education on grounds of lowering
fertility, have now been transformed to imbibe concerns on reproductive health and
child mortality issues[12].
The country has also been a
fertile ground for grassroots success stories in education and empowerment,
some of which have been linked to the total literacy campaign program and more
recently to the 93rd Constitutional Amendment. Though implemented with differential
degrees of success, overall, these were accompanied by extensive people’s mobilization.
A significant spillover of the adult literacy program was the anti-arrack
(local liquor) women’s agitation to contain violence against women in Andhra
Pradesh. Other interventions include the Mahila Samakhya programme and the
Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA). The Lok Jumbish and Shiksha Karmi
Programs (Rajasthan), amongst others, have offered innovative strategies to combat
gender discrimination in elementary education while the National Alliance on
the Fundamental Right to Education and Campaign Against Child Labour have
campaigned countrywide to demand free elementary education[13].
In the light of domestic
compliance to international law, the Constitution of India significantly
requires the state to foster respect for international law and obligations
emanating from international treaties (Article 51). Further, the Supreme Court
has also emphasized the binding nature of international obligations. For
instance, in Sheela Barse v. Secretary, Children’s
Aid Society[14] it was held that
‘India as a party to these international charters having ratified the declarations,
it is an obligation for the Government of India as also the state machinery to
implement the same in a proper way’.
UN monitoring bodies have
periodically communicated concerns on the right to education, the most
elaborate ones being underpinned by the Committee on CRC. These conveyed
extreme interstate, rural/urban, gender and caste disparities with regard to implementing
this right (CRC/C/15/Add.115, 23 Feb. 2000, Para 56). Further, prior to the
93rd Constitutional Amendment (2001) on the right to elementary education, both
the Committee on CRC and CEDAW (A/55/38, 1 February 2000, Para 64) noted that Supreme
Court directives on education were not being followed, which was also impinging
upon girl children’s right to access education. These directives were framed in
Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka[15]
where the Supreme Court held that every citizen has a right to education.
Correspondingly the state was obliged to provide educational institutions at
all levels. The court further construed that this right emanated from the right
to life. A year later, in 1993, the court held, in Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh[16],
that in the light of Articles 41, 45 and 46 of the Directive Principles of
State Policy, citizens of India have a fundamental right to education.
However, large-scale
violations (of the right to education) still occur, indicating glaring
gender/caste inequities in education. The EFA Global Monitoring Report places
India .at risk. of not even reaching the goal of gender parity, both in primary
and secondary education even by 2015. Even enrolment ratios for India show extreme
disparities. for instance, enrolment rates for Scheduled Caste and tribal
children are much lower than national averages. Likewise, the retention rate
also reflects gender imbalances. It is estimated that 61 per cent of girls are
out of school. Between 1980 and 1997, this rate has registered a minimal
decline of 2 per cent at the primary level and 4 per cent at the secondary
level (World Development Report 1998).
Despite a high demand for
education (Public Report on Basic Education in India 1999) violations of the
right to education are persistent, but the Indian polity demonstrates little
political will to address this problem. It is true that legal mechanisms,
whether international or municipal, have had a limited measure of success on
behalf of women and girl children, but judicial remedies are rarely resorted to
for lack of time and resources as survival and sustenance are daily battles.
For decades women have also borne the brunt of a coercive population regime
that used education as a tool. (It is equally alarming that just a few years
ago India was also used as a dumping ground for banned female contraceptives.)
Though inequities also
require financial adjustments, it is highly questionable whether the ideal
financial solution is through debt based expansion programs as in primary
education. So even though these have ushered in a new era with the District
Primary Education Program, which had differential degrees of success across the
country, such interventions should be reviewed with some concern. In posing
alternatives to the formal system of education and enhancing teacher, student
ratios, such programs have given perfunctory consideration to questions of
quality in education.
(i) Female Literacy Status in
India[17]
Year
|
Male
|
Female
|
Total
|
Difference
|
1951
|
27.2
|
8.9
|
16.7
|
18.3
|
1961
|
40.4
|
15.4
|
24.0
|
25.0
|
1971
|
46.6
|
22.0
|
29.5
|
24.0
|
1981
|
56.4
|
29.8
|
36.2
|
27.4
|
1991
|
63.1
|
39.3
|
43.3
|
23.8
|
2001
|
75.3
|
53.6
|
64.84
|
21.7
|
2011
|
82
|
65.46
|
74.04
|
16.68
|
(ii) National
Policy For Girls Education
The National Policy on
Education, 1968 emphasized on “Equalization
of Education Opportunity.” It has been highlighted that strenuous efforts
should be made to equalize educational opportunity. The education of girls
should receive emphasis, not only on grounds of social justice, but also
because it accelerates social transformation.
The National Policy on
Education (1986 and revised in 1992) brought out
a marked shift in the policy perspective towards girls’ education. While the
National Policy on Education, 1968 emphasized on equalization of educational
opportunities, the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 (revised in 1992)
emphasized on education for women’s equality and stressed on ending all kinds
of social evils and practices derogatory to women. The NPE (1986) clearly
states “ The National Education System will play a positive, interventionist
role in the empowerment of women” The NPE and its Programme of Action (POA),
1992 laid major emphasis on increasing women’s participation in vocational,
technical and professional education at different levels along with school
education. It further states that the policy of non-discrimination is
recommended to eliminate sex stereotyping in vocational and professional
courses and to promote women’s participation in non-traditional occupations, as
well as in existing and emergent technologies.
The National Policy for the
Empowerment of Women, 2001 also focuses on equal
access to women quality education at all levels and reducing the gender gaps in
secondary and higher education. The Empowerment of Women has found a special
mention in the National Policy, 2001[18].
(iii) Important
committees and commissions on girls’ education
(i) The Secondary Education
Commission (1952-1953)
This
commission upheld opening of every type
of education to women open to men.
(ii) Report
of the Durgabai Deshmukh Committee or National Committee on Women’s Education
(1958-59) recommended:
·
Appointments of school
mothers in all the schools where there is no woman teachers;
·
Separate lavatory
arrangement in every co- educational school;
·
Help in cash or kind such as
covering the cost of books and stationery; school uniform or clothing and other
educational equipments to all girls up to middle level, whose parents are below
certain level of income;
·
Schemes for awarding prizes
to the villages which show the largest proportional enrolment and average
attendance of girls;
·
Two three prizes in the form
of useful articles for regular attendance;
·
Attendance scholarships in
the form of useful articles to poor girls;
·
Creation of a strong public
opinion for girls’ education;
·
Provisions of suitable
conditions in schools rather than passing of compulsory legislation so that
parents can’t be encouraged to send their daughters to schools;
·
Women heads in coeducation
schools;
·
Free and subsidized
transport in order to bring middle and secondary schools, within easy reach;
and
·
Suitable hostel facilities.
The day boarding and lodging arrangements in these hostels should be cheap, and
payment in kind should be permitted.
(iii) Towards
Equality: Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India
(1962-63)
suggested incentives to prevent dropouts among girls.
(iv) Kothari Commission
(1964)
In
view of the important rote of education in the national development and in
building up a truly democratic society the Government considered it necessary
to survey and examines the entire field of education in order to realize a
well-balanced, integrated and adequate system of national education capable of
making a powerful contribution to all aspects of national life. To achieve
these objectives speedily, the Government of India in October 1964 set up an
Education Commission, under Resolution of July 14, 1964[19].
The
Commission in particular was to advise the government on the national pattern
of education and on the general policies for the development of education at
all stages-ranging from the primary to post-graduate stage and in all its
aspects besides examining a host of educational problems in their social and
economic context. The Commission was, however, not to examine legal and medical
education.
The
Commission in its report in 1964-66 recommended the establishment of a Common
School System for all children irrespective of their class, caste, religious or
linguistic background. The commission stated that in order to fulfill this
purpose, neighborhood schools should be established in all localities. It also recognized
that this was the only way we can promote social harmony and equality of
education. This commission given much importance to Common School System
because they said that by common school system will eradicate many problems and
give common platform to every individual.
(v) The
Committee to Look into the Causes for Lack of Public Support Particularly in
Rural Areas, for Girls’ Education and to Enlist Public Cooperation, 1963 and Committee
on Differentiation of Curricula for Boys and Girls, 1964
This
committee focused on appointment
of women teachers; appointment of women teachers on staff should be obligatory
where girls do attend a middle school ordinarily meant for boys, and grant of
free books, writing materials and clothing to girls.
(vi) The Education Commission
(1964-66)
This commission fully
endorsed the recommendations of National Committee on the Education of Women;
The Commission emphasized on the following points:
·
Educating public opinion to
overcome traditional prejudices against girls’ education;
·
Appointing women teachers;
·
Popularizing mixed primary
schools; and opening separate schools for girls at the higher primary stage,
wherever possible and demanded; Providing free books and writing materials and
if needed clothing also.
(vii) Towards
an Enlightened and Humane Society NPE, 1986 – A Review Committee for Review of
National Policy on Education, 1986 in 1990
This
committee upheld the need for adequate
support services (water, fuel, fodder and child care) to the promotion of
girls’ education and more provisions of schooling facilities like at least
one primary school in each habitation with a population of 300 or more
and atleast one middle school in each habitation with a population of
500 or more.
(viii) The National Perspective
Plan for Women (1988-2000)
This
plan recommended for women’s education on the top priority basis so
that women can’t attain a comparable level of education by 2000. The plan
suggested that:
·
Educational programs need to
be restructured and school curricula to be modified to eliminate gender bias.
·
Awareness needs to be
generated among the masses regarding the necessity of educating girls. The
media and various forms of communication have to be geared and a fruitful
rapport has to be established between the community at large and the educational
personnel.
·
Fifty percent posts in
elementary schools should be reserved for women teachers. In every school, at
least one woman teacher should be there.
·
School timings should be
flexible and schools must be available within a walking distance hence, a
substantial increase is required in the number of schools for girls. The
recommended distance of 3 km. for a middle school is a handicap for many girls,
It is therefore, necessary to provide hostel facilities over there.
(ix) Major
Programmes And Initiatives To Enhance Participation Of Girls At Elementary
Levels
The commitment to UEE has
been reiterated in each five year plans. The Education Commission (1964-66),
the NPE (1968) and the NPE (1986) and its POA (1992) have all emphasized the
need to implement the programme of UEE at the earliest.
There have been a number of
educational initiatives from the central and the state government’s along
with NGOs to achieve the goals of UEE especially after the recommendations
of NPE 1986. Some of these initiatives are Bihar Education Project (BEP), UP
Basic Education Project, Lok Jumbish, Shiksha karmi Project in Rajasthan and
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP). All these programmes and
projects have special gender focus. For example, one of the criteria for
selecting districts to initiate DPEP was low female literacy.
The government of India has
launched a new scheme known as Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) to
incorporate all the existing schemes and programmes related to elementary
education. The SSA aims to provide the quality elementary education to
all children in the age group of 6-14 years by 2010 with special focus
on girls and children belonging to socio-economically disadvantaged
groups and of children with special needs. Some of the initiatives for
girls under SSA are as follows[20]:
(A) National Programme for
Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL)
The NPEGEL was launched in
September 2003 as an integral but separate gender component of the Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan. This programme provides additional components for enhancing
the education of under privileged/disadvantaged girls at the elementary level
through more intense community mobilisation and development of Model Cluster
schools. Gender sensitisation, learning materials, and provision of need-based incentives
like escorts, stationery, work books and uniforms are some of the endeavours
under this programme[21].
(B) Opening of Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
(KGBV)
The Government of India has
launched a new scheme called Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) for
setting up upto 750 residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary
level for girls belonging predominantly to the SC, ST, OBC and minorities in difficult
areas. Out of a total 750 KGBVs, the Government of India has proposed to set up
117 KGBVs in blocks having predominance of Muslim population in which at least
three-fourths of the seats will be for girls from marginalized or minority
communities while the rest may be made available to girls from families below
the poverty line[22].
Chapter V
GENDER SENSITIZATION
OF TEACHERS AND THECOMMUNITY
Due to cultural and social
practices, the mindset of the community operates in a particular way. Men and
women in the community develop rigid view about the way they are treated in the
society. Thus the mindset needs to be made more flexible to accept change. This
will need attitudinal change. The module will bring out various gender issues
causing concern to the 50% human resource and sensitize the community towards discrimination
of female gender which has tremendously suffered over the years due to lack of
confidence, empowerment and because of socialization.
(A) Gender Sensitization
Extensive research over the
years has established that a peculiar kind of discrimination has existed in the
society for centuries that has led to differential behaviors’ towards both
genders i.e. men and women; boys and girls. As a result, various misconceptions
got associated with gender. These misconceptions are related to prevailing differences
between men and women in the society which are not biologically determined
rather socially constructed. Due to these differences, both the genders i.e.
men and women are expected to behave in different ways. Thus the present module
explores the concept of understanding gender both in the biological and social
context i.e. difference between sex and gender. Further it would explore
different roles assigned to each gender and their expected responsibilities. It
would also analyze as to how different social and cultural institutions treat
each gender in a way that discriminations have been visible at different
levels. The module also explores and brings the point that gender is an issue
of human dignity and human rights. How can the present and future generations
redefine different gender roles and create new gender relations and new gender
order in the family, community and society. Finally the teacher has to use
strategies to sensitize all stakeholders of education to bring and establish
gender peace and harmony in school and the classroom. You, as a part and parcel
of this community, have the role and responsibility to make the community aware
of gender issues and sensitize them for a better understanding.
(B) Understanding Gender,
the Concept
As a concept gender can be
understood in a much better fashion through the roles and responsibilities, and
cultural and social norms in the various institutions of home, family,
community, society and work places of different categories. The concept of
gender can also be understood well in many other social and cultural
institutions like religious places, various functions such as marriage, birth,
death, family celebrations and in social, economic and political connotations
of power relations[23].
As we know roles ascribed to
men and women in the society are specific to each culture, they are similar in
many ways but also vary tremendously in various pockets of India and even in
the world. Almost in each culture, there is a gap amongst men and women in
power and liberation. In a patriarchal society men are more powerful because
they have decision making powers and own resources much more than the women
own. Men have the freedom to have control of their lives while women are more
or less dictated and have to do whatever they are told to do. The freedom and
taking control of their own lives is lacking amongst women, rather they have
been socialized like this only. They own few resources only if at all they own
something. This has been happening more due to illiteracy and ignorance.
However the power structure
has started to change with the younger generations being more aware and because
of better education, power of knowledge and economic independence of women, and
amendments in certain relevant laws which are none women friendly, and also due
to new gender friendly policies and programmes initiated by state governments
and at the center. Therefore gender roles and responsibilities have begun to
change which calls for new definition of gender roles and relations due to new
equations of power, economic, liberation and personal freedom.
(C) Sex and Gender
It is a well known fact that
sex is biologically determined and gender is socially constructed. Biologically
we say men and women, girls and boys, which is innate and natural. It is
definite and determined biologically by XX and XY sex chromosomes. The natural
and random union of XX and XY chromosomes of mother and father respectively
leads to the birth of a child i.e. son (XY) and a daughter (XX). This is the
chance combination of two chromosomes coming from both types of paired sex
chromosomes. The XY chromosome of father only is responsible in determining the
birth of a female (XX) or a male child (XY) [24].
The social construction of
gender only has given rise to discrimination. As mentioned in the sub-concept
I, due to different gender roles, power structure and relations due to
different social, cultural, religious and economic institutions that the
prevailing concept of gender got constructed. We say masculine for a boy and
feminine for girls. We say aggressive, bold, objective warrior, intelligent for
men; and week, feeble, shy, second sex, second fiddle, weaker sex, emotional,
beautiful, good natured and nice for women. These concepts have made the
mindset to behave differently towards both genders. It is also the root cause
to discrimination. The pre set attitude, the rigid mind looks at both male and
female genders to behave in a particular fashion, wear the set clothes, eat
prescribed food, do set roles, and share prescribed responsibilities.
Gender inequalities arising
out of the above prescription have given the ascribed status to both men and
women because of the construction of gender happening due to social and
cultural practices.
(D) Social and cultural
Practices
The social and cultural
practices have assigned (i) gender roles and responsibilities, unknowingly
given rise to (ii) gender discrimination at different institutional levels.
Both these issues are being separately discussed in the following two (i) and
(ii) paragraphs.
(i) Gender Roles and Responsibilities
The social and cultural
practices have given rise to certain kinds of roles and responsibilities for men
and women, girls and boys. Men will take control outside the domains of home and
women are supposed to be home bound. All the household chores and functions
related to home, home relations were given to women who are continuing as it as
of without fail. Women are expected to perform those chores not even looking at
their interest, aptitude and need. Similarly men without fail have to perform
duties of earning bread and butter for the family. He is supposed to be the
primary earner and she is the secondary earner if at all opportunity or need
arises, and thus, the second fiddle[25].
However in the changing scenario,
when women have started working and are becoming a part of work and labor
force, participating whether in the organized or unorganized sector, both the
types of roles have come on her shoulders, home and out of home, as a result of
which she has become doubly burdened.
(ii) Discrimination at different levels of
Institutions
There are four main levels
of institutions for both genders. However within these main institutions, there
are a number of sub levels of institutions related to social, cultural, religious,
economic and political power institutions. If we discuss family as an
institution, how within the family the roles, relations, responsibilities and
power structure play different parts towards women and girls, men and boys.
These amazing behaviours, expected attitudes have given rise to burning issues,
social evils and stigmas in the society. Family leads to community and society,
and all members of the family, community and society irrespective of their
genders have to go to their respective institutions of work place, may be
school or any other educational, technical or professional institution,
religious, economic or institution of power such as panchayat, legislative
assembly etc. These work places have their own equations towards both genders,
and in terms of access to facilities, status, promotions and freedom, but the
discriminations continue to exist towards female gender[26].
However the intervention of
the State, the government institutions in terms of amendments in laws, various
pro-gender schemes, policies and programmes are helping the girls and women to
overcome inequalities and harassments in some ways.
Gender: An Issue of Human dignity[27]
Various feminists and
activists, civil societies, and government structures have realized that gender
issues are not women’s is issues alone. They are people’s issues, issues of
both men and women. Gender equality is an issue of human dignity, a human
rights issue. Any harm to the dignity of 50% human resource is unjust. The
gender justice, social justice for human right, the woman rights’ are the
issues that need to be addressed by the states with all its sincerity. Various
state policies, five year plans are becoming gender inclusive, gender friendly
and pro-gender. Gender budgeting has become essential for each policy,
programme and plan of the government. Issue of gender sensitivity has become
part and parcel of each activity of government, non-government, private and
public sectors.
Chapter VI
RIGHT TO
EDUCATION
The
Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted Article 21-A in the
Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory education of all children
in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such a
manner as the State may, by law, determine. The Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the consequential
legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that every child has a right to
full time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a
formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.
(A) The Right of Children
to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
Article 21A and the RTE Act
came into effect on 1 April 2010. The title of the RTE Act incorporates the
words ‘free and compulsory’. ‘Free education’ means that no child, other than a
child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not
supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee
or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and
completing elementary education. ‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on
the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure
admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in
the 6-14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights based
framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to
implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the
Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act.
(B) Salient features of the Act
(I) Right of children to
free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in a
neighborhood school.
(II) It clarifies that
‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate government to
provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance
and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen
age group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or
charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing
elementary education.
(III) It makes provisions
for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class.
(IV) It specifies the
duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and
parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial
and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.
(V) It lays down the norms
and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), buildings and
infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours.
(VI) It provides for
rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher
ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the
State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural
imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment
of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to
local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.
(VII) It provides for
appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite
entry and academic qualifications.
(VIII) It prohibits (a)
physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening procedures for
admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and
(e) running of schools without recognition,
(IX) It provides for
development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the
Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development of the child,
building on the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child
free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and child
centered learning.
(C) An Appraisal of the
Right to Education Act, 2009
The
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, popularly known
as the Right to Education (RTE) Act, came into being in India from April 1,
2010. The Act is a remarkable step forward in the field of education in India.
However, some of the provisions of the Act, although included with noble
intentions, will have unintended consequences that might counter some of the
advantages of the new system itself as well has have ill effects on the very
subjects of the Act, the children , most of whom are even unaware of the polity
behind the legislation ruling them.
The
Act suffers from some serious flaws, many of which have been objected upon by
the state governments and the professionals related to the field of education,
from teachers to parents to our very own students.
Section
16 of the Act, provides that No child admitted in a school shall be held back
in any class or expelled from school till the completion of elementary education.
While it is true that failing a child may well cause the child to intensely
doubt his or her abilities, the Government fails to appreciate that failing a
child also serves as a protective mechanism. The term “fail” has always worked
as a deterrent for a child to study seriously and perform well. Failing,
actually serves as a blessing in disguise for the students. Also, detaining the
child in the same class ensures that the child learns the particular set of
skills required for his/her development and hence is a more scientific
approach. Promoting the child to the next class regardless of his performance
in the previous class would also, in a way, be treating the less meritorious
students at par with the ones who have worked hard and meritoriously achieved a
place in the next level which is unfair to the good students.
The
system then provides for special attention (through Section 4 of the Act) for
such a child in the higher class to make up the deficiency in skills and
ability. The critical question is – can a child who is unable to bear the
workload of a junior class now deal with the workload of a senior class in
addition to taking special classes? The embarrassment of failing, which under a
system of failing a weak student is corrected at the first stage of inadequacy,
now carries over into senior classes.
Failing
also provides a feedback to the teachers as well as students. Both the skills
of the student and the teaching skill of a teacher are put to test. However,
the present legislation dismisses this advantage. A child who does not learn
the value of accountability, performance, and hard work in the initial stages
of its schooling will be ill-equipped to meet these constants of life in later
stages. Failure makes the students accustomed to handling pressure and dealing
with stress. The present system simply makes the child ignorant to the
realities of life.
Schools
which do not have a certificate of recognition from the local authority or
government shall no longer be allowed to function, under Section 18 of the
Right to Education Act. If such a school is already functioning, the Act
prescribes that it be shut down within 3 years if it fails to meet norms. If a
new school is set up, it must conform to the norms for a school as laid out in
the Schedule of the Act, or be shut down within three years. This brings before
us two important facts. It is erroneous to conclude that private, unrecognized
schools offer a quality of education that is less than that offered by
recognized schools, and banning private unrecognized schools further aggravates
the problem of scarcity of formal education institutions.
Section
17(1) of the Act prohibits physical punishment or mental harassment of
students. While a ban on physical punishment is laudable, the one on mental harassment
is incompletely defined. What, after all, is ‘mental harassment’? It could be
anything from a light admonition for not completing homework to vile abuses
meant to strip the student of all self-respect. The Act sheds no further light.
Section
28 of the RTE Act mandates that no teacher should engage himself or herself in
private tuition activity. The primary reason why teachers under perform in the
classroom and then require their students to attend private tuitions is the
want of additional income, unfettered by a loose monitoring and punitive
system. Banning teachers from taking private tuitions does not do away with the
cause of the problem. Even if private tuitions by teachers are successfully
done away with, it still does not address the prevalence of teacher
underperformance and absenteeism. Section 24 of the Act prescribes punitive
measures to be undertaken in case absenteeism and non-performance of duties is
observed. While it prescribes the minimum duties to be undertaken by each
teacher, no specification is made of what constitutes high performance.
While
the intention of the Government (through the RTE Act) in providing free
education to children till the age of 14 years is laudable, there is also a
need for measures to ensure that children (especially poor children) do not
drop out of school once they lose the benefit of free education.
The implementation of the provisions of the RTE Act will be no simple matter either. The other shortfalls aside, the availability of funds and teachers remain significant roadblocks in the implementation of the Act. The Act, which has made education a fundamental right of ever child, will require an investment of Rs 1.71 lakh crore for the next five years for implementation. Recently, Delhi Government violated The RTE Act, 2009 by subjecting children to screening procedure for admission to Class VI in Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalayas in the academic year 2010-2011.On the other hand The State Governments demand for cent percent finance from the central government. In reply to them the Centre regards Education as an essential State subject and hence puts the onus of 35 percent of the finance on the state. The war of words still continues. The sad reality is that the future and education of 3 million poor children is juggling between the central government and the state governenment and their political motives. The Act has also been criticized for its hasty drafting. The Question still remains. Should the future of Indian children be dependant on the faulty drafting of laws in a country which is the largest democracy in the world? Can a country, who is a signatory to many international conventions, who is one of the fastest growing economy in the world, not provide adequate , good quality education for her children? Clearly, we have a lot to answer for. And as concerned citizens do something about it; something meaningful, something concrete, something urgently. No more do we have the luxury of blaming the system or postponing our actions. The time to take collective as well as individual responsibility to remedy the present situation is here. Right now! And also we need many more Smiles to cater to the vast number of children in our country's population.
The implementation of the provisions of the RTE Act will be no simple matter either. The other shortfalls aside, the availability of funds and teachers remain significant roadblocks in the implementation of the Act. The Act, which has made education a fundamental right of ever child, will require an investment of Rs 1.71 lakh crore for the next five years for implementation. Recently, Delhi Government violated The RTE Act, 2009 by subjecting children to screening procedure for admission to Class VI in Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalayas in the academic year 2010-2011.On the other hand The State Governments demand for cent percent finance from the central government. In reply to them the Centre regards Education as an essential State subject and hence puts the onus of 35 percent of the finance on the state. The war of words still continues. The sad reality is that the future and education of 3 million poor children is juggling between the central government and the state governenment and their political motives. The Act has also been criticized for its hasty drafting. The Question still remains. Should the future of Indian children be dependant on the faulty drafting of laws in a country which is the largest democracy in the world? Can a country, who is a signatory to many international conventions, who is one of the fastest growing economy in the world, not provide adequate , good quality education for her children? Clearly, we have a lot to answer for. And as concerned citizens do something about it; something meaningful, something concrete, something urgently. No more do we have the luxury of blaming the system or postponing our actions. The time to take collective as well as individual responsibility to remedy the present situation is here. Right now! And also we need many more Smiles to cater to the vast number of children in our country's population.
Chapter VII
CONCLUSION
The provision of educational
opportunities for women has been and importunities for women have been an
important part of the national endeavor in the field of education since India’s
Independence. Though these endeavors did yield significant results, gender disparity
persists with uncompromising tenacity, more so in the rural areas and among the
disadvantaged communities. This is not only a matter of national anxiety and
concern but also a matter of national conscience.
The right of every
individual to education is one of the first provisions of the Universal
Declaration on Human Rights. But education is often neglected in societies
struggling to meet the many needs of their people. Recently education has
received greater priority as Planners and Policy makers finally recognized it
as a key factor in determining the pace of development.
Creating educational
opportunities for girls and women is strongly emphasized in the work of the UN.
CEDAW suggests ‘encouraging co- education’ as one way of eliminating the
stereotyping of women. Education, being the most powerful instrument for
empowering women assumes special priority in the recent plans and programmes of
National and International action. Concerted efforts are also made to bring
more women into the preview of education. In spite of these many provisions,
still there is a wide gap between male and female literacy levels in
India. Keeping this in view the
programme of action for future has to be formulated so as to reduce the gap as
well as illiteracy rate among girls and women.
Chapter VIII
SUGGESTION
It may be suggested that:-
1.
An exhaustive Act should be
passed by Parliament to take care the whole aspect of girls’ education at
least.
2.
Girls student should be given at least 1/3
seats in all educational institution whether it is aided by government or
unaided.
3.
Reservation Policy for the
girls should be given constitutional status.
4.
Right to Education Act
should be amended to provide them reservation.
5.
Certain kind of schemes to
be implemented by the Government to encourage girl student to join
school/colleges.
6.
No fees should be charged
from girl students till the completion of higher education.
7.
Certain kind of incentives
to given to girls students.
8.
Girls should be encouraged
to join schools.
9.
Law should be made for the
security of girl students.
10.
Punishment to be given to
parents, if they deny to send their daughter to school.
Finally, it may be said that girls are
very delicate we should handle it with due care.
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